Intervention to Increase Exercise Levels of Diabetes Patient

Intervention to Increase Exercise Levels of Diabetes Patient An intervention to increase the participation levels of Physical Activity in patients diagnosed with Type II diabetes Background Physical activity is an increasingly important health issue with physical inactivity being associated with many chronic diseases. Physical inactivity has been identified as the fourth biggest risk factor for mortality, accounting for 6% of deaths globally [1]. However, despite strong evidence in support of the health benefits of physical activity, few people actually meet the recommended guideline level [2]. In 2008, less than 20% of adults aged 65-74 met the recommended level of physical activity [3]. Diabetes is the fifth most common cause of death in the world [4] affecting around 250 million people worldwide, a figure expected to increase to over 336 million by 2030 [5]. Type II diabetes is widespread amongst 90% of diabetic patients, found to be more common in older adults [6]. Obesity accounts for 80-85% of Type II diabetics, making it the most potent risk factor [7]. Research has shown that regular physical activity has positive benefits for Type II diabetes in that it improves body’s sensitivity to insulin and helps manage blood glucose levels [8], as well as improving an individual’s physical and mental well-being. This Indicates that physical activity is vital in both preventing and treating Type II diabetes, as well as preventing further chronic health conditions. Literature Review Self-determination theory (SDT) [9] accounts for the processes that facilitate motivational development and how the social environment can enhance or diminish self-motivation. SDT is a popular social-cognitive theory, which maintains and has provided support for the proposition that all human beings have fundamental psychological needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Satisfaction of these basic psychological needs (BPN) leads to intrinsic or extrinsic motivation which influences the level of self-determined motivation an individual possesses, whereas preventing these needs promotes controlled motivation or amotivation [10]. Motivational interviewing (MI) is a scientifically tested counselling method, viewed as a useful intervention strategy in the treatment of lifestyle problems and disease. The concept of MI evolved from the experience of treating alcoholism, first described by Miller in 1983 [11]. Miller and Rollnick defined MI as ‘a directive, client-centred counselling style for eliciting behaviour change, by helping clients to explore and resolve ambivalence’ [12]. MI is a particular way of helping clients recognise and do something about their current or potential problems. It is viewed as being particularly useful for clients who are reluctant or hesitant about changing their behaviour. A systematic review and meta-analysis [13] of 72 randomised controlled trials shows that MI in a scientific setting outperforms traditional advice giving in the treatment of a range of behavioural problems and diseases. It also shows that MI had a significant effect in approximately three out of four studies, with an equal effect on physiological (72%) and psychological (75%) diseases [13]. Large-scale studies are now needed to prove that it can be implemented into daily clinical work in primary and secondary health care. Research [14] has shown MI to be an effective intervention for weight loss and improving glycaemic control. Patients with Type II diabetes were randomly allocated to an MI group, a Cognitive Behavioural Group Training (CBGT) or a control group and tested before and after each intervention. The findings of this study showed that in MI and CBGT, mean Body Mass Index (BMI) was significantly lower than the control group, indicating MI and CBGT is a useful intervention in helping adults with type II diabetes lose weight [14]. MI has been criticised for lacking a coherent theoretical framework for understanding its process and efficacy. It is believed that SDT can offer such a framework [15]. MI and SDT are based on the assumption that humans have an innate tendency for personal growth toward psychological integration, and that MI provides the social–environmental facilitating factors suggested by SDT to promote this tendency [15]. Aim To evaluate the effectiveness of using motivational interviewing to increase the level of physical activity of older adults diagnosed with type II diabetes, through satisfying their basic psychological needs. Design A randomised control trial design will be used, to establish a cause and effect relationship between the intervention – MI, and the outcome – increase in physical activity. A control group will be used to compare against the intervention group, allowing the researcher to see if MI has a specific effect on the intended behaviour change (increase in physical activity). It also allows any potential ‘other factors’, away from the attention of the intervention which may contribute to an increase in physical activity to be identified. The participants, to prevent selection bias, will be randomly allocated to a group using a computer. Sample Participants need to be classified as physically inactive (participate in less than 30 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise, 3 times a week), diagnosed with Type II diabetes and aged 65+. Participants will be recruited through letters sent out via General Practitioners (GPs) to patients and through advertisements in health centres and doctors surgeries. Although currently classified as physically inactive the participant must be willing to engage in physical activity, and therefore must gain medical clearance, from their GP, to participate in the study. The recruitment of participants will be done throughout England in order to gain a large, reliable sample which can be generalised to the wider population. Intervention Miller and Rollnick [12] suggested that MI is based on the following principles: express empathy, develop discrepancy, avoid argumentation, roll with resistance, and support self-efficacy [12]. The strategies of MI are more persuasive than forced, more supportive than argumentative, and the overall goal is to increase the client’s intrinsic motivation so that change arises from within [15]. The practitioner should aim to produce a social environment satisfying participants BPN, which should promote their motivation to participate in physical activity. The structure provided by the practitioner, such as helping the client develop appropriate goals and providing positive feedback, targets the psychological need for competence. The provision of autonomy support by using client-centred strategies like rolling with resistance, exploring options, and letting the client make decisions, all support the need for autonomy. The involvement of the client by the practitioner in terms of ex pressing empathy, demonstrating an understanding and avoiding criticism support the need for relatedness [16]. To increase the likelihood of physical activity participants can chose whether their MI sessions are at their local leisure centre or hospital, or via telephone calls. The intervention program will last for 18months. In the first three months the participants will receive weekly sessions, then from month three to six they will have fortnightly sessions, and for the final 12months they will receive one session per month. A follow up study will also be completed 24months after the intervention started. It is important that practitioners provide the participants with knowledge, guidance and support to enable them to make decisions. The control group will have social phone calls and meetings like the intervention group but no MI in the sessions they will just be encouraged to maintain their current physical activity level. Assessment The outcome of the intervention will be measured at intervals: baseline, 3 months, 6 months, 12 months and 18 months. A follow up study will also be completed 24months after the intervention started. The study will adopt three measures. The first is a general questionnaire measure to obtain demographic information, such as participants’ age, sex and current physical activity levels. The second measure is the Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly (PASE) [17]. PASE is a valid, brief and easy scored survey designed specifically to assess physical activity in epidemiologic studies of persons age 65 years and older [17].The final measure used will be the Basic Need Satisfaction Scale [18]. This will assess the extent to which the participant felt their practitioner was satisfying their BPN. All these measures have been found to be valid and reliable. The same measures will be used at each interval to assess changes/improvements, as well as being used in the follow up to see if th eir behaviour change has been sustained. Limitations There are a few limitations to consider. Firstly, the study aims to recruit a large sample of participants for a long period of time; it will be hard for the researcher to keep all the participants for the duration, resulting in a high dropout rate, making the result unreliable and un-generalizable. Secondly, the intervention requires time, especially at the start when the participant is required to attend weekly meetings. If the participant(s) has a lack of time then they are not going to be able to attend weekly meetings as well as completing the physical activity. In term of the intervention used, MI is based on the idea that a client must be willing to work with a professional to change behaviours, a client in denial will be unaffected by MI questions and advice. Also, outside influences maybe stronger, meaning that in a clinical setting the participant is motivated to change but when they return home they may return back to original behaviour.

Banking Regulation Act Summary

BANKING REGULATIONS ACT 1949 The Banking Regulation Act was passed as the Banking Companies Act 1949 and came into force wef 16. 3. 49. Subsequently it was changed to Banking Regulations Act 1949 wef 01. 03. 66. Summary of some important sections is provided hereunder. The section no. is given at the end of each item. For details, kindly refer the bare Act. * Banking means accepting for the purpose of lending or investment of deposits of money from public repayable on demand or otherwise and withdrawable by cheque, drafts order or otherwise (5 (i) (b)). Banking company means any company which transacts the business of banking (5(i)(c) * Transact banking business in India (5 (i) (e). * Demand liabilities are the liabilities which must be met on demand and time liabilities means liabilities which are not demand liabilities (5(i)(f) * Secured loan or advances means a loan or advance made on the security of asset the market value of which is not at any time less than the amount of such l oan or advances and unsecured loan or advances means a loan or advance not secured (5(i)(h). Defines business a banking company may be engaged in like borrowing, lockers, letter of credit, traveller cheques, mortgages etc (6(1). * States that no company shall engage in any form of business other than those referred in Section 6(1) (6(2). * For banking companies carrying on banking business in India to use at least one word bank, banking, banking company in its name (7). * Restrictions on business of certain kinds such as trading of goods etc. (8) * Prohibits banks from holding any immovable property howsoever acquired except as acquired for its own use for a period exceeding 7 years from acquisition of the property. RBI may extend this period by five years (9) * Prohibitions on employments like Chairman, Directors etc (10) * Paid up capital, reserves and rules relating to these (11 & 12) * Banks not to pay any commission, brokerage, discount etc. more than 2. 5% of paid up value of one share (13) * Prohibits a banking company from creating a charge upon any unpaid capital of the company. (14) Section 14(A) prohibits a banking company from creating a floating charge on the undertaking or any property of the company without the RBI permission. * Prohibits payment of dividend by any bank until all of its capitalised expenses have been completely written off (15) * To create reserve fund and 20% of the profits should be transferred to this fund before any dividend is declared (17 (1)) * Cash reserve – Non-scheduled banks to maintain 3% of the demand and time liabilities by way of cash reserves with itself or by way of balance in a current account with RBI (18) * Permits banks to form subsidiary company for certain purposes (19) * No banking company shall hold shares in any company, whether as pledgee, mortgagee or absolute owners of any amount exceeding 30% of its own paid up share capital + reserves or 30% of the paid up share capital of that company whichever is less. (19(2). Restrictions on banks to grant loan to person interested in management of the bank (20) * Power to Reserve Bank to issue directive to banks to determine policy for advances (21) * Every bank to maintain a percentage of its demand and time liabili ties by way of cash, gold, unencumbered securities 25%-40% as on last Friday of 2nd preceding fortnight (24). * Return of unclaimed deposits (10 years and above) (26) * Every bank has to publish its balance sheet as on March 31st (29). * Balance sheet is to be got audited from qualified auditors (30 (i)) * Publish balance sheet and auditors report within 3 months from the end of period to which they refer. RBI may extend the period by further three month (31) * Prevents banks from producing any confidential information to any authority under Indl Disputes Act. (34A) * RBI authorised to undertake inspection of banks (35). * Amendment carried in the Act during 1983 empowers Central Govt to frame rules specifying the period for which a bank shall preserve its books (45-y), nomination facilities (45ZA to ZF) and return a paid instrument to a customer by keeping a true copy (45Z). * Certain returns are also required to be sent to RBI by banks such as monthly return of liquid assets and liabilities (24-3), quarterly return of assets and liabilities in India (25), return of unclaimed deposits i. e. 10 years and above (26) and monthly return of assets and liabilities (27-1).

What is the prevalence of religion among modern student communities in the UK - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2463 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Religion Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? To what extent can patterns of religiosity in this social context be said to differ from other and previous contexts? Introduction The past half century has seen dramatic social change in which changes in religiosity are only a small part. Modern British society is multi-cultural and multi-ethnic; women routinely work outside the home; education is freely available and most forms of discrimination, including discrimination on religious grounds, have been outlawed. From the 21st century standpoint, it seems incredible that women were once denied the right to a university education,that third-level access was almost exclusively the preserve of the elite or, indeed, that universities ever demanded conformity to the Established Church. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "What is the prevalence of religion among modern student communities in the UK?" essay for you Create order In light of such social development, it is unsurprising that the UKs student community has a markedly different attitude towards religion than its predecessors. This brief essay has a great deal of material vying for space. Consequently, there are inevitable omissions, such as an assessment of religions such as Islam which are bucking the secularisation trend. However, it will examine the function of religion as observed by Durkheim, Parsons and Marx before reflecting on Webers insights to place discussions in a sociological context. The essay will also outline and engage with the concept of community and explore how Tonnies (1887) observations are relevant when considering the motivations and affiliations of a transient student cohort. This essay will seek to establish the facts about religious affiliation and observance as revealed in historical and contemporary studies. Finally, it will assess the extent of changing societal norms on religious observance à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" not only among students, but also among the wider British community. Religion and Sociology Christians view God as omnipotent, eternal, and assert that God must be worshipped. In contrast, the Dugum Dai of New Guinea believe the spirits of the dead cause sickness and death and must be placated by ritual. The Sioux invoke benevolent powers to make rain fall and crops grow. What is evident from these few examples is that defining religion is challenging. However, sociologists have offered two possible approaches: a functional perspective and a substantive viewpoint (Haralambos and Holborn, 2004). The substantive viewpoint examines what is believed and, as such, is beyond the scope of this essay although it is worth noting that Durkheim (1961) argued that all societies divide the world between the sacred and the profane, and, by attaching mystic symbolism to certain things, set them apart. However, he also took a functionalist standpoint, positing that the shared beliefs and values thus created form the collective conscience which enforces social order, while emphasising the importance of group ritual to enhance societal bonds (Durkheim, 1961). Functionalists, therefore, analyse religion in terms of how it contributes to meeting societal need (Haralambos and Holborn, 2004). Talcott Parsons (1964) also examined religion from a functionalist perspective, arguing that human behaviour is regulated by the norms applicable in that society. In his view, religion not only offered standards against which acceptable human conduct could be measured; it also provided a mechanism for dealing with life-changing events such as bereavement. However, as society developed, Parsons foresaw religion losing many of its functions (Parsons, 1964). The functionalist position is that values which are no longer functional, i.e. no longer fulfil the needs of society, do not survive (Haralambos and Holborn, 2014). Marx also saw religion as functional, but he deemed it an illusion which eases the pain produced by exploitation and oppression (Haralambos and Holborn, 2004:409) Furthermore religion, in Marxs view, helped the ruling class to justify their wealth: The parson has ever gone hand in hand with the landlord (cited in Haralambos and Holborn, 2004:410). Marx believed that religion would lose its function and disappear as a classless society emerged. Insights offered by these scholars suggest that religion helps to maintain the status quo and that change in religious belief is driven by change in the wider society. However, Weber took a different view, arguing that religion had driven societal change. The ascetic Calvinist sect he described believed that those chosen to go to Heaven were selected by God before their birth. They reasoned that only Gods chosen people would be able to lead a good life on earth, a belief which produced people who were focussed on work, as wealth indicated chosen status: In short, religion provides the theodicy of good fortune for those who are fortunate. (Weber, in Gerth and Mills (eds) 1946:271) Coupled with a frug al Protestant lifestyle, this led to the accumulation of capital, investment and reinvestment and ultimately capitalist society itself: Only the methodical way of life of the ascetic sects could legitimate and put a halo around the economic individualist impulses of the modern capitalist ethos. (Weber, in Gerth and Mills (eds) 1946:322) According to Haralambos and Holborn (2004:419) Weber asserted that the pursuit of profit triggered an emphasis on rational calculation. However, Weber distinguished between formal rationality, involving numerical calculations, and substantive rationality, involving action towards specific goals such as justice or equality. Substantive morality, including the morality demanded by religious beliefs, held less significance in capitalist societies. Weber saw rationality as being incompatible with religious faith and Protestant religion as the inevitable precursor of secularisation. (Haralambos and Holborn, 2004). Community The modernisation, rationalisation and secularisation of society also impacted on the concept of community. Tonnies (1887) first drew attention to the contrast between Gemeinschaft, which he saw as the intimate, private community, and Gesellschaft, which more closely equated to the wider society associated with the world of work and public life: In Gemeinschaft (community) with ones family, one lives from birth on bound to it in weal and woe. One goes into Gesellschaft (society) as one goes into a strange country. (Tonnies, 1887, in Worsley (ed) 1978:409) The transition from home to higher education is, indeed, similar to going into a strange country with different rules and expectations. This inevitably leads to the formation of new forms of Gesellschaft as students create associations and make decisions based on substantive rationality in order to achieve personal goals. This is significant because the diminished influence of Gemeinschaft may cause students to reflect on previous ly unquestioned religious beliefs. Religiosity Turning to the available information on religion in the UK, Bruce (1996, 2002), who has written extensively on religion and secularisation, observed a significant decline in religiosity. Whilst it is worth noting that official statistics only date back to the 2001 Census, several major organisations including the British Social Attitudes Survey (BSAS) and British Household Panel Survey (BHPS) have researched religious affiliation since the 1970s. However, the 2011 UK census figures confirm that the number of people stating that they had no religion increased across all age groups since the 2001 census, now forming the second largest grouping after Christianity, and particularly so among the 20-24 and 40-44 age groups (Office for National Statistics [ONS] 2013). The 20-24 age group is significant for this essay as it would contain much of the student population, but comparison with other surveys is problematic. YouGov (2011) working on behalf of the British Humanist Association (BHA ) found that only 9% of people reported having attended a place of worship within the past week. They also found that when asked directly What is your religion? 39% of respondents said they had none. However, when the same sample group was asked, as a follow up question, Are you religious? 65% said they were not. This apparent contradiction suggests that nominal religious affiliations may outlive faith or religious practice. According to the BSAS Report (2014), the percentage of the population claiming to have no religion rose from 31.4% in 1983 to 50.6% in 2013 and among the 15-24 age group the figure rose to almost 70% (BHA, undated). A study of the student population reveals that around one third say they have no religion which is slightly more than the Census indicates but still in line with most other surveys while 27% indicate membership of a faith society in their institution, surely indicating a significant religious commitment. This figure rose to 63% of Jews, 48% of Musl ims and 44% of Sikhs (Weller et al, 2011). However, as this was a self-selecting sample for an online survey, accessed through unspecified gatekeepers, the results should be viewed with caution. Nevertheless, assuming that most students come from a (nominally) Christian background, their need to retain distinct ties to their faith in the college environment appears weaker than that of other religions. It is notable that not all universities are secular or non-denominational, a potentially significant factor in sustaining religious observance. Many institutions are faith-based, such as Blackfriars Hall in Oxford and Roehampton University in London which have a Roman Catholic ethos (Catholic Links, 2015). Non-Christians can also study in culturally-appropriate environments such as that of Cambridge Muslim College (2015). Students in these and similar institutions may be inherently more religious than their counterparts in secular/non-denominational colleges and universities and see religious observance as an important part of their college life. However, it could also be argued that if these students come from families or ethnic groups with a strong religious ethos, then parental preference could have influenced selection of their place of study. Discussion Several early commentators, including Wilson (1966) and Bruce (1996) noted the secularisation process taking place in the UK, with Bruce (2002) asserting that as society fragments into a plethora of cultural and religious groupings, religion becomes a matter of personal choice. In Durkheims view, society and spiritual belief were intrinsically intertwined: Primitive man comes to view society as something sacred because he is utterly dependent on it (Durkheim, 1961, cited in Haralambos and Holborn, 2004:407). MacIver and Page once said that The mark of a community is that ones life may be lived wholly within it (MacIver and Page, 1949, cited in Worsley, (ed) 1978:410). In contrast, students leaving home to enter higher education are distanced from their Gemeinschaft and exposed to new ideas and codes of behaviour, including, one presumes, alternative belief systems or, indeed, agnosticism or atheism. As noted earlier, Weber claimed that, in a modern society, motivating forces were n o longer spiritual or supernatural; they were rational, involving a personal assessment of how to attain specific goals (Weber: in Gerth and Mills, 1948). The students goal is presumably to succeed academically, which may necessitate forming new alliances outside the community of shared religious observance. In todays diverse, multi-cultural, and inclusive student population, patterns of religiosity reflect the wider community in that they differ significantly from previous generations (ONS, 2013). Nevertheless, the available Census statistics suggest that this may be related to age rather than educational status, as many students fall into the 20-24 age group (ONS, 2013). Whilst Bruce (2002) acknowledges that religion can remain an integral part of ones beliefs despite diminished political and social significance, Weller (2011) noted that certain religious groups were more likely to join faith-related student societies. Seeking out the familiarity of a religious community may be related to cultural or ethnic origins, or the religious ethos of the educational institution attended. The discussion, therefore, must consider other factors which could influence student religiosity. With an estimated 22% of students continuing to live with their family while they study (Marsh, 2014:np) almost four out of five young people entering college live independently, probably for the first time. The student community is an excellent example of Gesellschaft, with its own rules and norms, and for that reason membership of college groups or societies could fulfil many of the functions previously filled by the home-town religious community. However, Bruce (2002) noted the persistence of individual religious belief, even when it no longer held political or social significance. While patterns of religiosity may differ and it is entirely credible that even a committed religious students attendance at faith ceremonies may be infrequent that does not prove that they have comp letely abandoned the faith in which they were reared. On reflection, the available data suggests that the student population is not markedly less religious than the wider community and that changes in British religiosity shown in the 2011 Census (ONS, 2013) are mirrored in trends revealed among a predominantly young student population. Certainly, the evidence suggests that secularisation, although advancing steadily, is proceeding at roughly the same pace within and without the student community. This essay has already noted the functionalist argument, applying equally to the Marxist analysis as it does to views expressed by Parsons and Durkheim, which posits that values which cease to serve a function do not survive (Haralambos and Holborn, 2014). Nevertheless, despite the rise of secularism and the secular influences which students face, there is evidence suggesting that they are not consigning religion to history without considerable soul-searching. Early in 2013, noted atheis t Richard Dawkins was the guest of Cambridge Union for a high-profile debate against former Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams, current Master of Magdalene College, Cambridge. The motion This house believes Religion has no place in the 21st Century was defeated by 324 versus 138 votes (Jing, 2013,np). The secularisation debate among the student population is, it seems, not over yet. Bibliography British Humanist Association (undated). Religion and Belief: Some surveys and statistics. Available at https://humanism.org.uk/campaigns/religion-and-belief-some-surveys-and-statistics/ Retrieved 25.8.2015 British Social Attitudes Survey (2014). Report. In British Humanist Association. Available at https://humanism.org.uk/campaigns/religion-and-belief-some-surveys-and-statistics/ Retrieved 25.8.2015 Bruce, S (1996). Religion in the Modern World: From Cathedrals to Cults. Oxford, Oxford University Press. Bruce, S (2002). God is Dead. Oxford, Blackwell. Catholic Links (2015). Roman Catholic Universities, Available at: www.catholiclinks.org/uniextrjengland.htm. Retrieved 25.8.2015 Durkheim, E, (1961). The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life. New York, Collier Books Gerth, H, and Mills, C (eds) 1948. From Max Weber, Essays in Sociology. London, Routledge and Kegan Paul Haralambos, M, and Holborn, M (2004). Sociology, Themes and Perspectives. 6th. Edition. London , HarperCollins Jing, G (ed) 2013. Dawkins Defeated in Cambridge Union Religion Debate. In: The Cambridge Student, 1.2.2013. Available at https://www.tcs.cam.ac.uk/news/0024661-dawkins-defeated-in-cambridge-union-religion-debate.html. Retrieved 23.8.15 MacIver and Page (1961) The Mark of a Community is That Ones Life May be Lived Wholly Within It. In Worsley, P (ed) Modern Sociology: Introductory Readings. 2nd Edition, 1978:410-411. London, Penguin. Marsh, S (2014) Rise of the live-at-home student commuter in The Guardian, 26.8.2014. Available at https://www.theguardian.com/education/2014/aug/26/rise-live-at-home-student-commuter. Retrieved 30.8.2015 Office for National Statistics, 2013. What does the census tell us about religion in 2011? Available at https://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/infographics/what-does-the-census-tell-us-about-religion-in-2011-/index.html. Retrieved 25.8.2015 Parsons, T, (1964). Essays in Sociological Theory. New York, Free Press. Tonnies, F (1887) The Contrast between Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft Trans. Worsley, P (ed), 1978. Modern Sociology, Introductory Readings. pp 409-410. 2nd edition. Harmondsworth, Penguin. Weller, P, Hooley, T, and Moore, N (2011). Religion and Belief in Higher Education: the experiences of staff and students.[pdf]. Equality Challenge Unit. Available at https://www.ecu.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/external/religion-and-belief-staff-and-students-in-he-report.pdf. Retrieved 25.8.2015. Wilson, B, (1966). Religion in a Secular Society. London, C.A Watts. Worsley, P (1978) Modern Sociology: Introductory Readings. 2nd Edition. London, Penguin. YouGov (2011) Religion and Belief: Some surveys and statistics. British Humanist Association. Undated. Available at https://humanism.org.uk/campaigns/religion-and-belief-some-surveys-and-statistics/ Accessed 25.8.2015

How to Use the Complement Rule in Statistics

In statistics, the complement rule is a theorem that provides a connection between the probability of an event and the probability of the complement of the event in such a way that if we know one of these probabilities, then we automatically know the other one. The complement rule comes in handy when we calculate certain probabilities. Many times the probability of an event is messy or complicated to compute, whereas the probability of its complement is much simpler. Before we see how the complement rule is used, we will define specifically what this rule is. We begin with a bit of notation.  The complement of the event  A, consisting of all elements in the  sample space  S  that are not elements of the set  A, is denoted by  AC. Statement of the Complement Rule The complement rule is stated as the sum of the probability of an event and the probability of its complement is equal to 1, as expressed by the following equation: P(AC) 1 – P(A) The following example will show how to use the complement rule. It will become evident that this theorem will both speed up and simplify probability calculations. Probability Without the Complement Rule Suppose that we flip eight fair coins — what is the probability that we have at least one head showing? One way to figure this out is to calculate the following probabilities. The denominator of each is explained by the fact that there are 28 256 outcomes, each of them equally likely. All of the following us a formula for combinations: The probability of flipping exactly one head is C(8,1)/256 8/256.The probability of flipping exactly two heads is C(8,2)/256 28/256.The probability of flipping exactly three heads is C(8,3)/256 56/256.The probability of flipping exactly four heads is C(8,4)/256 70/256.The probability of flipping exactly five heads is C(8,5)/256 56/256.The probability of flipping exactly six heads is C(8,6)/256 28/256.The probability of flipping exactly seven heads is C(8,7)/256 8/256.The probability of flipping exactly eight heads is C(8,8)/256 1/256. These are mutually exclusive events, so we sum the probabilities together using one the appropriate addition rule. This means that the probability that we have at least one head is 255 out of 256. Using the Complement Rule to Simplify Probability Problems We now calculate the same probability by using the complement rule. The complement of the event â€Å"We flip at least one head† is the event â€Å"There are no heads.† There is one way for this to occur, giving us the probability of 1/256. We use the complement rule and find that our desired probability is one minus one out of 256, which is equal to 255 out of 256. This example demonstrates not only the usefulness but also the power of the complement rule. Although there is nothing wrong with our original calculation, it was quite involved and required multiple steps. In contrast, when we used the complement rule for this problem there were not as many steps where calculations could go awry.​